Wednesday, June 25, 2003
Notes on Doctrines of Church and Sacraments from Christian Theology: An Introduction (McGrath, Alister E.)
Christian Theology: An Introduction
McGrath, Alister E.
Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd.
2nd edition, 1997
The Doctrine of the Church (p461-493)
Early Developments of Ecclesiology
During the first five centuries there was a wide consenus on the following elements:
1. The church is a spiritual society, replacing Israel as the people of God.
2. Christians are made one in Christ irrespective of origin and background.
3. The church is the repository of true Christian teaching.
4. The church gathers the world's faithful together to enable them to grow in faith and holiness. (p462)
The issue of the primacy of the bishop of Rome led to reflection on ecclesiological issues. As the centre of the Roman Empire the bishop of Rome had aquired especial importance, and was called upon to arbitrate in church disputes throughout the Mediterranean. Eastern churches did not believe this position to have any theological justification, but others saw the bishop of Rome as the successor to the apostle Peter who was martyred at Rome and had apparent primacy in the New Testament. (p462-463)
Cyprian of Carthage put forth two major princliples in his Unity of the Catholic Church (251):
1. The unity of the church cannot be broken on any pretext, and to be outside the church is to be outside the scope of salvation. Schism is totally unjustified.
2. Therefore a schismatic bishop has lost his spiritual gifts and authority, and cannot minister or administer the sacraments; if they baptise or ordain the baptism or ordination is invalid. (p464)
Some Christian leaders handed over their books to be burned in the persecutions of Diocletian which ran from 303 to 313. One such was Felix of Aptunga, who later went on to consecrate Caecilian as bishop of Carthage in 311. Many refused to accept Caecilian's authority, on the second of Cyprian's principles, and a faction formed in North Africa, the Donatists (after the leader, Donatus). Any who had been baptised or ordained by such bishops were required to be rebaptized or reordained. However, by holding to this principle the Donatists contradicted it by creating schism. The Catholics believed that by repentance the bishop had been restored to grace, and argued against Donatists on Cyprian's first principle. (p263-264)
Augustine arrived as Bishop of Hippo in 388 and put forth his own view of the church. First he emphasised the sinfulness of Christians, and the church as a 'mixed body' of saints and sinners using the parables, esp the wheat and tares (Mat 13;24-31). The church is holy because of Christ, not because of its members. Secondly he argued that schism is a more serious sin than traditio. Donatism was thus flawed.
The Reformation Controversies
Luther declared that the doctrine of justification by faith alone was "the article by which the church stands or falls", and believing that the Catholic church had lost sight of this truth he concluded that it had ceased to be the authentic Christian church. Reformation understanding of the church is to be seen in the tension between Augustine's doctrine of grace and his doctrine of the church. (p466)
Martin Luther's view of the church emphasised the Word of God; the visible church is constituted by the preaching of the gospel, not institutionally by an episcopally ordained ministry. "Where the word is, there is faith; and where faith is, there is the true church." Nevertheless, Luther insisted that the historical institution of the church is a divinely ordained means of grace, though the Catholic church only had the appearance of being the true church. (p467)
The failure of the Colloquy of Regensburg in 1541 ended hopes of a reunion with the Catholic Church, and so the next generation of reformers were led to develop a more coherent and systematic ecclesiology. John Calvin defined the marks of the true church as being:
1. that the Word of God should be preached
2. that the sacraments should be rightly administered.
Calvin believed that scripture contained directions on how the preaching and administering of sacraments should be ordered, and understood his definition to include a specific form of ecclesiastical institution and administration. Ministerial government of the church, including distinctions between ministers, elders, deacons and people, is divinely ordained. (p468)
Calvin distinguished the visible church (the earthly community, including good and bad people) and the invisible church (the eschatological community of the elect). His doctrine of the visible church is Augustinian, and believers are obliged to honor and remain loyal to it on account of the invisible church. The true church is not consituted by the quality of its members but by the presence of the authorised means of grace (the Word and the sacraments). Discipline is not a mark of the church (against Martin Bucer). (p469)
Calvin taught that the institution of the church exists as God's ordained means within history of sanctifying redeemed human beings, speaking of the church as the believer's mother, outside of which there is no salvation (after Cyprian of Carthage). Calvin had a corporate view of the church. (p470)
The radical reformers (Sebastian Franck, Menno Simons) believed that the apostolic church had been compromised and corrupted by its involvement with the state, such that the historical institution was a parody of the true church, which now existed only in heaven. They called for the church to be separated from secular society and become 'an assembly of the righteous'. They were thus at odds with the Augustinian and Calvinist 'mixed body', and adhered to a Donatist view. Consequently the purity of the church was to be maintained by whatever disciplinary means were necessary. (p471)
The radical reformers were generally opposed to coercion and advocated non-resistance, esp Jakob Hutter and Hans Denck and the Anabaptists. Coercion belonged outside of Christ and the church, but had no place inside (the Schleitheim Confession, 1527). Discipline was maintained by 'the ban', whereby members were excluded from the community. Failure to maintain this discipline in the mainstream churches is reason to remain separate from them. The Polish Racovian Catechism gives these reasons for this disciplinary measure:
1. so fallen members may be healed and brought back into fellowship.
2. to deter members from commiting offense.
3. to eliminate scandal and disorder.
4. to prevent the Word of God from falling into disrepute outside the congregation.
5. to prevent the glory of the Lord being profaned.
(p471-473)
Twentieth-Century Discussions of the Church
Ignatius of Antioch said in the first century that 'wherever Christ is, there is also the catholic church.' This aphorism has been approached in a number of ways.
a. Christ is present sacramentally. Vatican II asserted in Lumen Gentium that the church is like a sacrament, a sign and instrument of union with God and unity among humanity. The church is constituted by the word of God and is also a visible entity. Before Vatican II Henri de Lubac in Catholicism said that the church exists to make Jesus Christ present to the world. Idea picked up by Otto Semmelroth (1953, The Church as Primordial Sacrament. The church demonstrates God's ability to use material things to point to the spiritual), Edward Schillebeeckx (Christ, The Sacrament of the Encounter with God), Hans Urs von Balthasar (incarnational approach - the church is the prolongation of Christ in time and space), Karl Rahner (church exists to make Christ present in a historical, visible, embodied form).
For Rahner, because the church is a real, historical presence it requires structures. An institutional element in the church is justified, though not of defining importance, and perhaps can change as appropriate. For Schillebeeckx Christ is the 'primal sacrament' not the church - the church derives any sacramental character through its relation with Christ.
Protestant critics say the approach has a relative lack of biblical foundation and lacks a theology of preaching. (p473-475)
b. Christ is present through the Word. A central Protestant theme is the presence of Christ resulting from the proclamation of his word, in preaching and the sacraments. Karl Barth is important for developing the kerygmatic idea. The church comes into being in response to the proclamation of the word of God, and itself proclaims the word of God. The church is not an extension of Christ but is united with Christ and commisioned by him to serve the world; Christ is present through the Spirit which empowers and renews the church, uniting it to the work of the cross and making Christ present, making the church an event rather than an institution.
The role of proclamation and church as event also picked up by Rudolf Bultmann. The word of God is not a statement of truth but a proclamation, and is thus an event. The church that proclaims the word must also be an event. (p475-477)
c. Christ is present through the Spirit. This focuses on the Spirit as consitutive of the church. Leonardo Boff (Ecclesiogenesis: The Base Communities Reinvent the Church) understands this role based on the Spirit being the Spirit of Jesus Christ. Against the view that the church is the physical embodiment of Christ in the world (see a above), the church is the spiritual body of Christ and is not therefore confined to specific structures. Boff's pneumatological approach has parallels with the kerygmatic approach. The church is called into being by people becoming aware of Christ's call, and this ecclesial consciousness is the result of the work of the Holy Spirit, inseparable from the risen Christ.
For John Zizioulas, the church is instituted by Christ but is constituted by the Spirit. 1 Corinthians 12 allocates this constitutive role to the Spirit. (p477-478)
d. Christ is absent. In a radical Protestant view, Christ is in heaven at the right-hand of God, and the church is also a heavenly entity without earthly embodiment. Links to Zwinglian eucharistic understanding, and associated with Donald W.B. Robinson (1965, The Church of God) and D. Brougton Knox (the Sydney school). According to Robinson the term ekklesia means the gathering together of the people (demos) rather than the people themselves. The church is not the people of God, but refers to the gathering together of the people of God. According to Knox, this gathering takes place around Christ who is in heaven, and is to be distinguished from local gatherings of the people of God. (p478-479)
Vatican II. Prior to the Second Vatican Council (1962-65) Roman Catholicism had since the 16th century tended to define the church in terms of its visible aspects, its governmental structures and codes of belief and conduct. This was partly a result of growing papal political power and attacks on the papacy and church heirarchy. It resulted in strong distinctions between the clergy and laity. In the 20th century this was challenged by such as Lucien Cerfaux and Yves Congar. The early church didn't possess a monolithic structure, which was developed partly as a response to political pressures. (p479-480)
In addition to understanding the church as sacrament Vatical II also developed the following understandings:
a. The church as communion. The biblical term koinonia, communion or fellowship. The biblical theme is the sharing in a common life, both the life of the Trinity and the life of believers in the church. The fundamental idea is fellowship with God, established through the death and ressurection of Christ, and lived in the life of the church (in the Spirit?). (p481)
b. The church as the people of God. The election of the church as the people of God does not mean the rejection of the people of Israel, but the extension of the kingdom of God so that the church is continuous with Israel. (p481)
c. The church as a charismatic community. The Spirit bestows charism - gifts - on individuals in the church for specific purposes.
The Notes of the Church
The Nicene creed talks about 'one holy catholic and apostolic church'. The 4 adjectives are called the notes of the church.
1. One. How is the church one, when there are many churches? Two episodes in history are of especial importance. The Decian persecution (250-1) led to many lapsing: did this mark the end of their faith, or could they be reconciled? Cyprian of Carthage insisted on absolute unity of the church, as 'the seamless robe of Christ'. The unity of the church cannot be destroyed so there is only one church and no salvation outside of it. The reformers of the Reformation had to justify breaking the unity of the church, and did so by arguing that the Roman Catholic church had been so corrupted it was no longer to be regarded as the church. The principle of breaking away for doctrinal reasons led to the explosion of denominations. The idea of 'one church' could not be understood sociologically or institutionally. Approaches to this problem are:
a. The imperialist approach, which claims only one empirical church to be the true church. The position of the RC church until Vatican II.
b. The platonic approach, which distinguishes the empirical church and the ideal church. Hints of this in Calvin's 'visible and invisible' churches, but is best interpreted eschatalogically.
c. The eschatalogical approach, where the present situation will be resolved in the last things.
d. The biological approach, where different churches are like branches on a tree but possess an organic unity. Nicolas von Zinzendorf developed this in 18th century, and it was popular with 19th century Anglicans.
More recently theologians concerned with ecumenism argue that the unity of the church is found in Christ, rather than any historical or cultural factor. Unity is not sociological or organisational but theological, deriving from its common calling from God and the saving work in Christ. Local variation is allowed. (Hans Kung, The Church) As an example, Anglicanism only requires consent to the main points of Christian faith. Also, evangelicalism is a trans-denominational movement - unity is based on common commitment to the gospel.
2. Holy. In what way is the church holy, in the face of the past and present sinfulness of the church and its members? The approach of sectarian groups like the Donatists and Anabaptists was to emphasise the actual holiness of members, and exclude those deemed to have lapsed. However, the NT affirms the fallibility and forgivability of christians. Another approach is to affirm the holiness of the church in distinction to its members. However, a church does not exist without members and this line of thought breaks the connection with its members. The eschatalogical approach says that finally, on the last day, the church will be holy. (p487)
The Hebrew term kadad underlying the NT concept of holiness has the sense of 'being cut off' or 'being separated'. It has overtones of dedication, in the OT having the idea of something/someone that God has set apart. NT restricts idea to people, who are holy on account of their calling by God. Correlation with 'church' ('those who are called out') and 'holy'. Therefore a theological term rather than a moral term, and refers primarily to Christ who calls the church. (p488)
3. Catholic. From the Greek kath' holou ("referring to the whole") through Latin catholicus ("universal or general"). While an individual church in the NT is not the church in its totality, it shares in that totality. This idea is what 'catholic' originally encapsulates. 'The catholic church' first used by Ignatius of Antioch, matyred c110. After Constantine it came to refer to the church legalised by the state and orthodox in its theology. Further, the expansion of the church led to the use of the term to mean 'embracing the whole world'. (p489-90)
The reformers agued that they remained catholic because they retained the central doctrinal truths, whereas historic or institutional continuity was of secondary importance. Recent ecumenical moves have resulted in a shift back to original position, expressed by Hans Kung. Attention also paid to the Orthodox use of the term, which relates to the unity of believers in the church and the harmony of corporate life.
4. Apostolic. The sense is 'originating with the apostles' or 'having a direct link to the apostles'. The church is founded on the apostolic witness and testimony. It also emphasis the continuing mission of the church, in the sense of apostle meaning 'one sent by Christ'.
The Doctrine of the Sacraments (p494-519)
The 4 main debates regarding the sacraments are:
1. What is a sacrament?
2. How many sacraments are there?
3. What is the correct name for the bread and wine sacrament?
4. In what sense is Christ present at the bread and wine sacrament?
Hereafter the bread and wine sacrament shall be referred to as the eucharist.
The NT does not use the term 'sacrament', but instead has the Greek word 'mysterion' (mystery) to refer to the saving work of God in general. A connection is made, however, between this mystery and the rites of baptism and eucharist. Sacramental theology was particularly developed in North Africa in the 3rd and 4th centuries by such figures as Turtullian, Cyprian of Carthage and Augustine of Hippo. (p495)
Turtullian (p495-6)
1. Translated the Greek 'mysterion' into Latin 'sacramentum'.
2. Used sacramentum in the plural to refer both to the mystery of God's salvation and also the specific symbols and rites associated with it.
3. Brought out the parallel between sacramentum (lit. 'sacred oath') and the military oath to show the role of sacraments as signs of commitment and loyalty.
Augustine (p496)
There is a relation between a sign and the thing signified, such that the sacraments do not only signify God's grace, but also evoke or enable what they signify.
Definition of a Sacrament
Augustine:
1. A sacrament is a sign.
2. The sign must bear some relation to the thing signified.
Hugh of St. Victor (12th century)
1. A sacrament has a 'physical or material' element
2. There must be a likeness to the thing signified
3. There must be authorisation to use the sign, such as institution by Christ.
4. It must be efficacious, capable of conferring the benefit it signifies.
Peter Lombard
Ommited Hugh of St. Victor's first condition. This definition became used up until the Reformation, as it matched the seven sacraments used by the RC church.
Martin Luther
The sacraments are 'those promises of God which have signs attached to them'.
1. The Word of God
2. The outward sacramental sign.
Argued that the Vulgate translation 'sacramentum' was unjustified. Believed that there were only two sacraments, baptism and eucharist, as only these had 'the divinely instituted sign and the promise of the forgiveness of sins'.
Ulrich Zwingli
Took up the original meaning of sacrament as an oath. In his earlier writings the sacraments were signs of God's faithfulness and promises. Later he reversed this, so the sacraments were the signs of the believers allegience to God.
The Donatist Controversy and Sacramental Efficacy (p500 - 502)
There are two positions:
1. The sacraments are efficacious 'ex opere operantis' - 'on account of the work of the one who works'. Their efficacy is dependent on the personal holiness of the minister.
2. The sacraments are efficacious 'ex opere operato' - 'on account of the work which is done'. Their efficacy is dependent on the grace of Christ, which they represent and convey.
Cyprian of Carthage popularised position #1 in the Donatist controversy. Those who had compromised their holiness could not validly administer the sacraments. Augustine proposed position #2, though he maintained that the right to administer the sacraments lies with the church and especially with the successors to the apostles, the ordained ministers. This position became normative and was maintained by the 16th century reformers. Innocent III (12th century) argued in particular that the sacrament's efficacy was grounded in the Word of God, not in the worthiness of the priest.
The Function of the Sacraments (p503-509)
1. Sacraments convey grace
Ignatius of Antioch and Ambrose of Milan held that sacraments 'effect' eternal life. Augustine distinguished between the sign of the sacrament and the effective power, the force of the sacrament. Scotus held that the sacraments do not cause grace, but that God effects grace at the presence of the sacraments.
Many reformers were opposed to this view, such as Peter Martyr Vemigli, and said that the sacraments were only outward signs. The Council of Trent restated the traditional view that sacraments convey grace (convey rather than cause).
2. Sacraments Strengthen Faith
Especially associated with 16th century reformers. The sacraments are a divine accommodation to our human weakness in receiving and responding to the divine promise; the Word is supplemented by tangible signs, so that the promises of God are mediated through everyday objects. Melancthon thought that ideally we should trust God on the basis of the Word alone, but the sacraments remind and reassure us regarding the word of faith. They are nothing in themselves but 'seals' of the divine promise.
The language of sacrament as 'seal' was used by Luther, who spoke of them as a 'pledge' of the divine promise - 'promises with signs attached to them'.
However, the RC church also says that as well as conveying grace, the sacraments also strengthen faith.
3. Sacraments Enhance the Unity and Commitment within the Church
Augustine held that people were held together by a common sharing in a sign or sacrament. Luther said that the sacraments also reassure the members that they belong to the body of Christ. According to Zwingli the primary purpose of the sacraments is to show that an individual belongs to the community of faith. Baptism is the sign of entry analogous to circumcision, and eucharist is the sign of continued loyalty. The eucharist is a reminder of the founding event of the church, and celebrating it is thus a public demonstration of allegiance to that church.
4. Sacraments Reassure us of God's Promises Towards Us
Luther - as a testament becomes effective on the death of the testator, the eucharist reassures us of God's promise of forgiveness by proclaiming the death of Jesus who gave the promise.
The Question of the Real Presence
Jesus' words of institution 'this is my body ... this is my blood' suggest that Jesus is present in the eucharist, an idea known as the 'real presence'. Cyril of Jerusalem (c350) believed that the bread and wine somehow became the body and blood of Jesus. John of Damascus (8th century) said that this happened through the Spirit. In the 9th century this was a matter of controversy, 2 positions being advocated:
Paschasius Radburtus (c844) said that the bread and wine became the body and blood of Jesus in reality.
Ratramnus (c845) said that the elements were only symbolic of the body and blood of Christ. They were different from normal bread and wine in the perception of the believer, who aquired a deeper perception of the spiritual reality of the body and blood of Christ.
An altogether different view was held by Candidus of Fulda, who held that the church was being referred to in the words 'this is my body'. As Christ took on humanity, perfected it and gave it back to us, the sacraments are to nourish and perfect the body of Christ.
The main doctrines are transsubstantiation, consubstatiation and memorialism:
Transubstantiation:
The Lateran Council of 1215 made transubstantiation the official doctrine of the church, confirmed at the Council of Trent in 1551. The substance of the bread and wine becomes the body and blood of Christ, but the appearance remains that of bread and wine. Modern theologians have reworked this, especially Edward Schillbeeckx. He says that the identity of the bread and wine cannot be isolated from their context or use. There is thus:
transsignification - the meaning of the bread and wine is changed
transfinalization - the end or purpose of the bread and wine is changed.
This is actually close to what Zwingli said. The elements are unchanged in themselves, but their signification is altered so that they become reminders of the death of Christ.
Consubstantiation:
Martin Luther held that what is important is that Christ is present in the bread and wine, not how Christ is present. He said that the substance of Christ and the substance of the bread and wine are present simultaneously.
Memorialism:
Zwingli said that 'this is my body' means 'this signifies my body'. The eucharist is thus a memorial, a reminder, of the sacrifice of Christ. It is not a sacrifice in itself.
The Controversy of Infant Baptism
The evidence for infant baptism in the NT is ambiguous. A few passages refer to the baptism of households (Acts 16:15, 33; 1 Cor 1:16) which might include infants. Baptism is also likened to circumcision in Col 2:11-12, and it is possible that as circumcision was applied to infants baptism was likewise.
The practise had become normal by the 2nd to 3rd century. Origen argued from the practise that as even infants were baptised it follows that all need the grace of Christ. In similar vein Augustine argued that Christ was the saviour of all, including infants, and so infants should be baptised. Turtullian, however, thought baptism should be deferred until the infant was able to know Christ. Karl Barth argued against it on 3 grounds:
1. It is without firm biblical foundation
2. People assume they are Christian because they were baptised as infants - "cheap grace"
3. The link between baptism (seen as our response to God) and discipleship is weakened.
The 3 positions are:
Infant Baptism remits the guilt of original sin
Held be Cyprian of Carthage and Augustine (in response to the Pelagian controversy). As there is 'one baptism for the forgiveness of sins' then infant baptism must remit original sin. The guilt of original sin is removed, though the disease of sin remains.
The question arises as to what becomes of those infants who die without being baptised. Augustine believed that they could not be saved. Peter Lombard believed that though they suffered the condemnation of sin, they would not experience the pain of condemnation. Hence the notion of 'limbo'.
Infant Baptism is grounded in the covenant between God and the church.
This sees baptism as a parallel with circumcision, a sign of belonging to the covenant community. As infants can belong to that community it is right that they be baptised.
Infant Baptism is unjustified.
The radical reformation view, taken up by the Baptists, based on the view that the sacraments have declarative significance rather than causative significance. Baptism should only be administered when a person shows signs of faith, repentence and grace.
McGrath, Alister E.
Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd.
2nd edition, 1997
The Doctrine of the Church (p461-493)
Early Developments of Ecclesiology
During the first five centuries there was a wide consenus on the following elements:
1. The church is a spiritual society, replacing Israel as the people of God.
2. Christians are made one in Christ irrespective of origin and background.
3. The church is the repository of true Christian teaching.
4. The church gathers the world's faithful together to enable them to grow in faith and holiness. (p462)
The issue of the primacy of the bishop of Rome led to reflection on ecclesiological issues. As the centre of the Roman Empire the bishop of Rome had aquired especial importance, and was called upon to arbitrate in church disputes throughout the Mediterranean. Eastern churches did not believe this position to have any theological justification, but others saw the bishop of Rome as the successor to the apostle Peter who was martyred at Rome and had apparent primacy in the New Testament. (p462-463)
Cyprian of Carthage put forth two major princliples in his Unity of the Catholic Church (251):
1. The unity of the church cannot be broken on any pretext, and to be outside the church is to be outside the scope of salvation. Schism is totally unjustified.
2. Therefore a schismatic bishop has lost his spiritual gifts and authority, and cannot minister or administer the sacraments; if they baptise or ordain the baptism or ordination is invalid. (p464)
Some Christian leaders handed over their books to be burned in the persecutions of Diocletian which ran from 303 to 313. One such was Felix of Aptunga, who later went on to consecrate Caecilian as bishop of Carthage in 311. Many refused to accept Caecilian's authority, on the second of Cyprian's principles, and a faction formed in North Africa, the Donatists (after the leader, Donatus). Any who had been baptised or ordained by such bishops were required to be rebaptized or reordained. However, by holding to this principle the Donatists contradicted it by creating schism. The Catholics believed that by repentance the bishop had been restored to grace, and argued against Donatists on Cyprian's first principle. (p263-264)
Augustine arrived as Bishop of Hippo in 388 and put forth his own view of the church. First he emphasised the sinfulness of Christians, and the church as a 'mixed body' of saints and sinners using the parables, esp the wheat and tares (Mat 13;24-31). The church is holy because of Christ, not because of its members. Secondly he argued that schism is a more serious sin than traditio. Donatism was thus flawed.
The Reformation Controversies
Luther declared that the doctrine of justification by faith alone was "the article by which the church stands or falls", and believing that the Catholic church had lost sight of this truth he concluded that it had ceased to be the authentic Christian church. Reformation understanding of the church is to be seen in the tension between Augustine's doctrine of grace and his doctrine of the church. (p466)
Martin Luther's view of the church emphasised the Word of God; the visible church is constituted by the preaching of the gospel, not institutionally by an episcopally ordained ministry. "Where the word is, there is faith; and where faith is, there is the true church." Nevertheless, Luther insisted that the historical institution of the church is a divinely ordained means of grace, though the Catholic church only had the appearance of being the true church. (p467)
The failure of the Colloquy of Regensburg in 1541 ended hopes of a reunion with the Catholic Church, and so the next generation of reformers were led to develop a more coherent and systematic ecclesiology. John Calvin defined the marks of the true church as being:
1. that the Word of God should be preached
2. that the sacraments should be rightly administered.
Calvin believed that scripture contained directions on how the preaching and administering of sacraments should be ordered, and understood his definition to include a specific form of ecclesiastical institution and administration. Ministerial government of the church, including distinctions between ministers, elders, deacons and people, is divinely ordained. (p468)
Calvin distinguished the visible church (the earthly community, including good and bad people) and the invisible church (the eschatological community of the elect). His doctrine of the visible church is Augustinian, and believers are obliged to honor and remain loyal to it on account of the invisible church. The true church is not consituted by the quality of its members but by the presence of the authorised means of grace (the Word and the sacraments). Discipline is not a mark of the church (against Martin Bucer). (p469)
Calvin taught that the institution of the church exists as God's ordained means within history of sanctifying redeemed human beings, speaking of the church as the believer's mother, outside of which there is no salvation (after Cyprian of Carthage). Calvin had a corporate view of the church. (p470)
The radical reformers (Sebastian Franck, Menno Simons) believed that the apostolic church had been compromised and corrupted by its involvement with the state, such that the historical institution was a parody of the true church, which now existed only in heaven. They called for the church to be separated from secular society and become 'an assembly of the righteous'. They were thus at odds with the Augustinian and Calvinist 'mixed body', and adhered to a Donatist view. Consequently the purity of the church was to be maintained by whatever disciplinary means were necessary. (p471)
The radical reformers were generally opposed to coercion and advocated non-resistance, esp Jakob Hutter and Hans Denck and the Anabaptists. Coercion belonged outside of Christ and the church, but had no place inside (the Schleitheim Confession, 1527). Discipline was maintained by 'the ban', whereby members were excluded from the community. Failure to maintain this discipline in the mainstream churches is reason to remain separate from them. The Polish Racovian Catechism gives these reasons for this disciplinary measure:
1. so fallen members may be healed and brought back into fellowship.
2. to deter members from commiting offense.
3. to eliminate scandal and disorder.
4. to prevent the Word of God from falling into disrepute outside the congregation.
5. to prevent the glory of the Lord being profaned.
(p471-473)
Twentieth-Century Discussions of the Church
Ignatius of Antioch said in the first century that 'wherever Christ is, there is also the catholic church.' This aphorism has been approached in a number of ways.
a. Christ is present sacramentally. Vatican II asserted in Lumen Gentium that the church is like a sacrament, a sign and instrument of union with God and unity among humanity. The church is constituted by the word of God and is also a visible entity. Before Vatican II Henri de Lubac in Catholicism said that the church exists to make Jesus Christ present to the world. Idea picked up by Otto Semmelroth (1953, The Church as Primordial Sacrament. The church demonstrates God's ability to use material things to point to the spiritual), Edward Schillebeeckx (Christ, The Sacrament of the Encounter with God), Hans Urs von Balthasar (incarnational approach - the church is the prolongation of Christ in time and space), Karl Rahner (church exists to make Christ present in a historical, visible, embodied form).
For Rahner, because the church is a real, historical presence it requires structures. An institutional element in the church is justified, though not of defining importance, and perhaps can change as appropriate. For Schillebeeckx Christ is the 'primal sacrament' not the church - the church derives any sacramental character through its relation with Christ.
Protestant critics say the approach has a relative lack of biblical foundation and lacks a theology of preaching. (p473-475)
b. Christ is present through the Word. A central Protestant theme is the presence of Christ resulting from the proclamation of his word, in preaching and the sacraments. Karl Barth is important for developing the kerygmatic idea. The church comes into being in response to the proclamation of the word of God, and itself proclaims the word of God. The church is not an extension of Christ but is united with Christ and commisioned by him to serve the world; Christ is present through the Spirit which empowers and renews the church, uniting it to the work of the cross and making Christ present, making the church an event rather than an institution.
The role of proclamation and church as event also picked up by Rudolf Bultmann. The word of God is not a statement of truth but a proclamation, and is thus an event. The church that proclaims the word must also be an event. (p475-477)
c. Christ is present through the Spirit. This focuses on the Spirit as consitutive of the church. Leonardo Boff (Ecclesiogenesis: The Base Communities Reinvent the Church) understands this role based on the Spirit being the Spirit of Jesus Christ. Against the view that the church is the physical embodiment of Christ in the world (see a above), the church is the spiritual body of Christ and is not therefore confined to specific structures. Boff's pneumatological approach has parallels with the kerygmatic approach. The church is called into being by people becoming aware of Christ's call, and this ecclesial consciousness is the result of the work of the Holy Spirit, inseparable from the risen Christ.
For John Zizioulas, the church is instituted by Christ but is constituted by the Spirit. 1 Corinthians 12 allocates this constitutive role to the Spirit. (p477-478)
d. Christ is absent. In a radical Protestant view, Christ is in heaven at the right-hand of God, and the church is also a heavenly entity without earthly embodiment. Links to Zwinglian eucharistic understanding, and associated with Donald W.B. Robinson (1965, The Church of God) and D. Brougton Knox (the Sydney school). According to Robinson the term ekklesia means the gathering together of the people (demos) rather than the people themselves. The church is not the people of God, but refers to the gathering together of the people of God. According to Knox, this gathering takes place around Christ who is in heaven, and is to be distinguished from local gatherings of the people of God. (p478-479)
Vatican II. Prior to the Second Vatican Council (1962-65) Roman Catholicism had since the 16th century tended to define the church in terms of its visible aspects, its governmental structures and codes of belief and conduct. This was partly a result of growing papal political power and attacks on the papacy and church heirarchy. It resulted in strong distinctions between the clergy and laity. In the 20th century this was challenged by such as Lucien Cerfaux and Yves Congar. The early church didn't possess a monolithic structure, which was developed partly as a response to political pressures. (p479-480)
In addition to understanding the church as sacrament Vatical II also developed the following understandings:
a. The church as communion. The biblical term koinonia, communion or fellowship. The biblical theme is the sharing in a common life, both the life of the Trinity and the life of believers in the church. The fundamental idea is fellowship with God, established through the death and ressurection of Christ, and lived in the life of the church (in the Spirit?). (p481)
b. The church as the people of God. The election of the church as the people of God does not mean the rejection of the people of Israel, but the extension of the kingdom of God so that the church is continuous with Israel. (p481)
c. The church as a charismatic community. The Spirit bestows charism - gifts - on individuals in the church for specific purposes.
The Notes of the Church
The Nicene creed talks about 'one holy catholic and apostolic church'. The 4 adjectives are called the notes of the church.
1. One. How is the church one, when there are many churches? Two episodes in history are of especial importance. The Decian persecution (250-1) led to many lapsing: did this mark the end of their faith, or could they be reconciled? Cyprian of Carthage insisted on absolute unity of the church, as 'the seamless robe of Christ'. The unity of the church cannot be destroyed so there is only one church and no salvation outside of it. The reformers of the Reformation had to justify breaking the unity of the church, and did so by arguing that the Roman Catholic church had been so corrupted it was no longer to be regarded as the church. The principle of breaking away for doctrinal reasons led to the explosion of denominations. The idea of 'one church' could not be understood sociologically or institutionally. Approaches to this problem are:
a. The imperialist approach, which claims only one empirical church to be the true church. The position of the RC church until Vatican II.
b. The platonic approach, which distinguishes the empirical church and the ideal church. Hints of this in Calvin's 'visible and invisible' churches, but is best interpreted eschatalogically.
c. The eschatalogical approach, where the present situation will be resolved in the last things.
d. The biological approach, where different churches are like branches on a tree but possess an organic unity. Nicolas von Zinzendorf developed this in 18th century, and it was popular with 19th century Anglicans.
More recently theologians concerned with ecumenism argue that the unity of the church is found in Christ, rather than any historical or cultural factor. Unity is not sociological or organisational but theological, deriving from its common calling from God and the saving work in Christ. Local variation is allowed. (Hans Kung, The Church) As an example, Anglicanism only requires consent to the main points of Christian faith. Also, evangelicalism is a trans-denominational movement - unity is based on common commitment to the gospel.
2. Holy. In what way is the church holy, in the face of the past and present sinfulness of the church and its members? The approach of sectarian groups like the Donatists and Anabaptists was to emphasise the actual holiness of members, and exclude those deemed to have lapsed. However, the NT affirms the fallibility and forgivability of christians. Another approach is to affirm the holiness of the church in distinction to its members. However, a church does not exist without members and this line of thought breaks the connection with its members. The eschatalogical approach says that finally, on the last day, the church will be holy. (p487)
The Hebrew term kadad underlying the NT concept of holiness has the sense of 'being cut off' or 'being separated'. It has overtones of dedication, in the OT having the idea of something/someone that God has set apart. NT restricts idea to people, who are holy on account of their calling by God. Correlation with 'church' ('those who are called out') and 'holy'. Therefore a theological term rather than a moral term, and refers primarily to Christ who calls the church. (p488)
3. Catholic. From the Greek kath' holou ("referring to the whole") through Latin catholicus ("universal or general"). While an individual church in the NT is not the church in its totality, it shares in that totality. This idea is what 'catholic' originally encapsulates. 'The catholic church' first used by Ignatius of Antioch, matyred c110. After Constantine it came to refer to the church legalised by the state and orthodox in its theology. Further, the expansion of the church led to the use of the term to mean 'embracing the whole world'. (p489-90)
The reformers agued that they remained catholic because they retained the central doctrinal truths, whereas historic or institutional continuity was of secondary importance. Recent ecumenical moves have resulted in a shift back to original position, expressed by Hans Kung. Attention also paid to the Orthodox use of the term, which relates to the unity of believers in the church and the harmony of corporate life.
4. Apostolic. The sense is 'originating with the apostles' or 'having a direct link to the apostles'. The church is founded on the apostolic witness and testimony. It also emphasis the continuing mission of the church, in the sense of apostle meaning 'one sent by Christ'.
The Doctrine of the Sacraments (p494-519)
The 4 main debates regarding the sacraments are:
1. What is a sacrament?
2. How many sacraments are there?
3. What is the correct name for the bread and wine sacrament?
4. In what sense is Christ present at the bread and wine sacrament?
Hereafter the bread and wine sacrament shall be referred to as the eucharist.
The NT does not use the term 'sacrament', but instead has the Greek word 'mysterion' (mystery) to refer to the saving work of God in general. A connection is made, however, between this mystery and the rites of baptism and eucharist. Sacramental theology was particularly developed in North Africa in the 3rd and 4th centuries by such figures as Turtullian, Cyprian of Carthage and Augustine of Hippo. (p495)
Turtullian (p495-6)
1. Translated the Greek 'mysterion' into Latin 'sacramentum'.
2. Used sacramentum in the plural to refer both to the mystery of God's salvation and also the specific symbols and rites associated with it.
3. Brought out the parallel between sacramentum (lit. 'sacred oath') and the military oath to show the role of sacraments as signs of commitment and loyalty.
Augustine (p496)
There is a relation between a sign and the thing signified, such that the sacraments do not only signify God's grace, but also evoke or enable what they signify.
Definition of a Sacrament
Augustine:
1. A sacrament is a sign.
2. The sign must bear some relation to the thing signified.
Hugh of St. Victor (12th century)
1. A sacrament has a 'physical or material' element
2. There must be a likeness to the thing signified
3. There must be authorisation to use the sign, such as institution by Christ.
4. It must be efficacious, capable of conferring the benefit it signifies.
Peter Lombard
Ommited Hugh of St. Victor's first condition. This definition became used up until the Reformation, as it matched the seven sacraments used by the RC church.
Martin Luther
The sacraments are 'those promises of God which have signs attached to them'.
1. The Word of God
2. The outward sacramental sign.
Argued that the Vulgate translation 'sacramentum' was unjustified. Believed that there were only two sacraments, baptism and eucharist, as only these had 'the divinely instituted sign and the promise of the forgiveness of sins'.
Ulrich Zwingli
Took up the original meaning of sacrament as an oath. In his earlier writings the sacraments were signs of God's faithfulness and promises. Later he reversed this, so the sacraments were the signs of the believers allegience to God.
The Donatist Controversy and Sacramental Efficacy (p500 - 502)
There are two positions:
1. The sacraments are efficacious 'ex opere operantis' - 'on account of the work of the one who works'. Their efficacy is dependent on the personal holiness of the minister.
2. The sacraments are efficacious 'ex opere operato' - 'on account of the work which is done'. Their efficacy is dependent on the grace of Christ, which they represent and convey.
Cyprian of Carthage popularised position #1 in the Donatist controversy. Those who had compromised their holiness could not validly administer the sacraments. Augustine proposed position #2, though he maintained that the right to administer the sacraments lies with the church and especially with the successors to the apostles, the ordained ministers. This position became normative and was maintained by the 16th century reformers. Innocent III (12th century) argued in particular that the sacrament's efficacy was grounded in the Word of God, not in the worthiness of the priest.
The Function of the Sacraments (p503-509)
1. Sacraments convey grace
Ignatius of Antioch and Ambrose of Milan held that sacraments 'effect' eternal life. Augustine distinguished between the sign of the sacrament and the effective power, the force of the sacrament. Scotus held that the sacraments do not cause grace, but that God effects grace at the presence of the sacraments.
Many reformers were opposed to this view, such as Peter Martyr Vemigli, and said that the sacraments were only outward signs. The Council of Trent restated the traditional view that sacraments convey grace (convey rather than cause).
2. Sacraments Strengthen Faith
Especially associated with 16th century reformers. The sacraments are a divine accommodation to our human weakness in receiving and responding to the divine promise; the Word is supplemented by tangible signs, so that the promises of God are mediated through everyday objects. Melancthon thought that ideally we should trust God on the basis of the Word alone, but the sacraments remind and reassure us regarding the word of faith. They are nothing in themselves but 'seals' of the divine promise.
The language of sacrament as 'seal' was used by Luther, who spoke of them as a 'pledge' of the divine promise - 'promises with signs attached to them'.
However, the RC church also says that as well as conveying grace, the sacraments also strengthen faith.
3. Sacraments Enhance the Unity and Commitment within the Church
Augustine held that people were held together by a common sharing in a sign or sacrament. Luther said that the sacraments also reassure the members that they belong to the body of Christ. According to Zwingli the primary purpose of the sacraments is to show that an individual belongs to the community of faith. Baptism is the sign of entry analogous to circumcision, and eucharist is the sign of continued loyalty. The eucharist is a reminder of the founding event of the church, and celebrating it is thus a public demonstration of allegiance to that church.
4. Sacraments Reassure us of God's Promises Towards Us
Luther - as a testament becomes effective on the death of the testator, the eucharist reassures us of God's promise of forgiveness by proclaiming the death of Jesus who gave the promise.
The Question of the Real Presence
Jesus' words of institution 'this is my body ... this is my blood' suggest that Jesus is present in the eucharist, an idea known as the 'real presence'. Cyril of Jerusalem (c350) believed that the bread and wine somehow became the body and blood of Jesus. John of Damascus (8th century) said that this happened through the Spirit. In the 9th century this was a matter of controversy, 2 positions being advocated:
Paschasius Radburtus (c844) said that the bread and wine became the body and blood of Jesus in reality.
Ratramnus (c845) said that the elements were only symbolic of the body and blood of Christ. They were different from normal bread and wine in the perception of the believer, who aquired a deeper perception of the spiritual reality of the body and blood of Christ.
An altogether different view was held by Candidus of Fulda, who held that the church was being referred to in the words 'this is my body'. As Christ took on humanity, perfected it and gave it back to us, the sacraments are to nourish and perfect the body of Christ.
The main doctrines are transsubstantiation, consubstatiation and memorialism:
Transubstantiation:
The Lateran Council of 1215 made transubstantiation the official doctrine of the church, confirmed at the Council of Trent in 1551. The substance of the bread and wine becomes the body and blood of Christ, but the appearance remains that of bread and wine. Modern theologians have reworked this, especially Edward Schillbeeckx. He says that the identity of the bread and wine cannot be isolated from their context or use. There is thus:
transsignification - the meaning of the bread and wine is changed
transfinalization - the end or purpose of the bread and wine is changed.
This is actually close to what Zwingli said. The elements are unchanged in themselves, but their signification is altered so that they become reminders of the death of Christ.
Consubstantiation:
Martin Luther held that what is important is that Christ is present in the bread and wine, not how Christ is present. He said that the substance of Christ and the substance of the bread and wine are present simultaneously.
Memorialism:
Zwingli said that 'this is my body' means 'this signifies my body'. The eucharist is thus a memorial, a reminder, of the sacrifice of Christ. It is not a sacrifice in itself.
The Controversy of Infant Baptism
The evidence for infant baptism in the NT is ambiguous. A few passages refer to the baptism of households (Acts 16:15, 33; 1 Cor 1:16) which might include infants. Baptism is also likened to circumcision in Col 2:11-12, and it is possible that as circumcision was applied to infants baptism was likewise.
The practise had become normal by the 2nd to 3rd century. Origen argued from the practise that as even infants were baptised it follows that all need the grace of Christ. In similar vein Augustine argued that Christ was the saviour of all, including infants, and so infants should be baptised. Turtullian, however, thought baptism should be deferred until the infant was able to know Christ. Karl Barth argued against it on 3 grounds:
1. It is without firm biblical foundation
2. People assume they are Christian because they were baptised as infants - "cheap grace"
3. The link between baptism (seen as our response to God) and discipleship is weakened.
The 3 positions are:
Infant Baptism remits the guilt of original sin
Held be Cyprian of Carthage and Augustine (in response to the Pelagian controversy). As there is 'one baptism for the forgiveness of sins' then infant baptism must remit original sin. The guilt of original sin is removed, though the disease of sin remains.
The question arises as to what becomes of those infants who die without being baptised. Augustine believed that they could not be saved. Peter Lombard believed that though they suffered the condemnation of sin, they would not experience the pain of condemnation. Hence the notion of 'limbo'.
Infant Baptism is grounded in the covenant between God and the church.
This sees baptism as a parallel with circumcision, a sign of belonging to the covenant community. As infants can belong to that community it is right that they be baptised.
Infant Baptism is unjustified.
The radical reformation view, taken up by the Baptists, based on the view that the sacraments have declarative significance rather than causative significance. Baptism should only be administered when a person shows signs of faith, repentence and grace.
Tuesday, June 24, 2003
Notes from 'The Gospel Made Visible': Toward Renewing Sacramental Worship in the Congregational Tradition (Peay, Steven A.)
'The Gospel Made Visible': Toward Renewing Sacramental Worship in the Congregational Tradition.
Peay, Steven A.
International Congregational Journal
Feb2001 Issue 1, p87-98, 12p
Congregational understanding of Eucharist derives especially from thought of Calvin: God's offering of the New Covenant in Jesus is by Word and Sacrament, the latter serving to seal and make vivid the promises of the former. The Word of promise is alone necessary for salvation, hence the sacrament is a seal. Sacraments are a mark of the church, but Calvin couldn't adopt Luther's position (presumably on the real presence of Christ in eucharist? - my comment). (p88)
Zwingli denied that material elements could be the medium of spiritual grace, and regarded the eucharist as a reminder or memorial of Jesus' death with no efficacy in itself. The real presence of Christ is ruled out by Christ being seated at God's right hand, and that his body is limited to one locality - finitude cannot embody infinity (p89, citing E. Brooks Holified, 1974). The presence of Christ is the excitation of the believer's faith.
The prevailing doctrinal position of the Separatists and subsequent Congregationalists was Calvin's, though Zwingli memorialism made frequent appearances. It was concern for the pure ministry of the sacraments that led people such as Richard Fitz to separate from the CofE. They were not anti- or a- sacramental as testified by Robert Browne's definition of the Lord's Supper in 1582 in which he says that the communicants are made one body with Christ , and one another as members in that one body. It is held to be a sacrament of unity, strongly reflecting the early church. (p90-91)
Because the eucharist is a seal of the covenant and a sign of unity, an early Congregational concern was that only those who can testify to being part of the Body could be joined to it sacramentally (Isn't this also the position of the Catholic and Orthodox churches? - my comment). Stephen H. Mayor (1963) argued that concern for sacramental purity led to it not being observed. In New England it was therefore observed infrequently, though there was a desire that it should be observed more frequently. (p92)
Holifield (1974) argues that the Great Awakening (a revivalist phenomena? - my comment) curtailed sacramental piety. The revivalist orientation of American religion created an anti-sacramental attitude, such that many modern Congregationalists deny the efficacy or necessity of sacramental worship. (p93) (Has there been a repeat of this among evangelical churches following the Toronto Blessing? - my comment)
Peay thinks recovering a sense of eucharist as a 'visible Gospel' and 'seal of the covenant' has much to offer modern Congragational understandings of the church and worship.
Paul's organic concept of the church, where we are all members of the body of Christ, is significant to a covenantal and sacramental understanding of the church. Most important is that the church is the body of Christ. It derives its identity from identification with Christ, so Christ is not just a personal reality but a corporate reality (links with N.T. Wright's notion of Messiah as the focus/embodiment of Israel? - my comment). (p93)
John Zizioulas (1982) writes of the identity of Christ understood as 'corporate personality', not as an individual but as one in whom many find their identity. Christ is a 'relational being' and the core of that relationship is koinonia (fellowship). The Spirit opens up participation in the koinonia. It is eschatological, but encompasses the present. We come to our definition within Christ when we encounter him in the Eucharist. Each community gathered around the table becomes an eikon of Christ, and is brought into relation with the eschatalogical community, thus the orientation of the church is towards its destiny in Christ. The eucharist is the expression of what the church is. (p94-95)
Henri de Lubac (1949) understood the church as corpus mysticum, and the eucharist is a means to an end, community in the body of Christ. Fed by the body and blood of Christ we thereby drink of the one Spirit who makes of us one body. Christ is communicated to us and we are brought into community with him.(p96)
These writers and the early Fathers, with the notion of the church as a community in Christ, have much to offer Congregationalist. The finite cannot encompass the infinite, but the infinite can encompass the finite and this takes place in Christ. Gathered into the body of Christ we are made participants in the life of God. This understanding of the presence of Christ in the eucharist is not concerned with 'how' but with the reality of being drawn into the presence. The real presence is a gift of God given in an act of the whole community, not just the action of a priest.(p96-97)
It must be remembered that the eucharist is not our offering to God but God's gift to us. We do not give meaning to the eucharist, but through it God gives meaning to us. (98)
Peay, Steven A.
International Congregational Journal
Feb2001 Issue 1, p87-98, 12p
Congregational understanding of Eucharist derives especially from thought of Calvin: God's offering of the New Covenant in Jesus is by Word and Sacrament, the latter serving to seal and make vivid the promises of the former. The Word of promise is alone necessary for salvation, hence the sacrament is a seal. Sacraments are a mark of the church, but Calvin couldn't adopt Luther's position (presumably on the real presence of Christ in eucharist? - my comment). (p88)
Zwingli denied that material elements could be the medium of spiritual grace, and regarded the eucharist as a reminder or memorial of Jesus' death with no efficacy in itself. The real presence of Christ is ruled out by Christ being seated at God's right hand, and that his body is limited to one locality - finitude cannot embody infinity (p89, citing E. Brooks Holified, 1974). The presence of Christ is the excitation of the believer's faith.
The prevailing doctrinal position of the Separatists and subsequent Congregationalists was Calvin's, though Zwingli memorialism made frequent appearances. It was concern for the pure ministry of the sacraments that led people such as Richard Fitz to separate from the CofE. They were not anti- or a- sacramental as testified by Robert Browne's definition of the Lord's Supper in 1582 in which he says that the communicants are made one body with Christ , and one another as members in that one body. It is held to be a sacrament of unity, strongly reflecting the early church. (p90-91)
Because the eucharist is a seal of the covenant and a sign of unity, an early Congregational concern was that only those who can testify to being part of the Body could be joined to it sacramentally (Isn't this also the position of the Catholic and Orthodox churches? - my comment). Stephen H. Mayor (1963) argued that concern for sacramental purity led to it not being observed. In New England it was therefore observed infrequently, though there was a desire that it should be observed more frequently. (p92)
Holifield (1974) argues that the Great Awakening (a revivalist phenomena? - my comment) curtailed sacramental piety. The revivalist orientation of American religion created an anti-sacramental attitude, such that many modern Congregationalists deny the efficacy or necessity of sacramental worship. (p93) (Has there been a repeat of this among evangelical churches following the Toronto Blessing? - my comment)
Peay thinks recovering a sense of eucharist as a 'visible Gospel' and 'seal of the covenant' has much to offer modern Congragational understandings of the church and worship.
Paul's organic concept of the church, where we are all members of the body of Christ, is significant to a covenantal and sacramental understanding of the church. Most important is that the church is the body of Christ. It derives its identity from identification with Christ, so Christ is not just a personal reality but a corporate reality (links with N.T. Wright's notion of Messiah as the focus/embodiment of Israel? - my comment). (p93)
John Zizioulas (1982) writes of the identity of Christ understood as 'corporate personality', not as an individual but as one in whom many find their identity. Christ is a 'relational being' and the core of that relationship is koinonia (fellowship). The Spirit opens up participation in the koinonia. It is eschatological, but encompasses the present. We come to our definition within Christ when we encounter him in the Eucharist. Each community gathered around the table becomes an eikon of Christ, and is brought into relation with the eschatalogical community, thus the orientation of the church is towards its destiny in Christ. The eucharist is the expression of what the church is. (p94-95)
Henri de Lubac (1949) understood the church as corpus mysticum, and the eucharist is a means to an end, community in the body of Christ. Fed by the body and blood of Christ we thereby drink of the one Spirit who makes of us one body. Christ is communicated to us and we are brought into community with him.(p96)
These writers and the early Fathers, with the notion of the church as a community in Christ, have much to offer Congregationalist. The finite cannot encompass the infinite, but the infinite can encompass the finite and this takes place in Christ. Gathered into the body of Christ we are made participants in the life of God. This understanding of the presence of Christ in the eucharist is not concerned with 'how' but with the reality of being drawn into the presence. The real presence is a gift of God given in an act of the whole community, not just the action of a priest.(p96-97)
It must be remembered that the eucharist is not our offering to God but God's gift to us. We do not give meaning to the eucharist, but through it God gives meaning to us. (98)
